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Springtail

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Springtail <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: </div>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%"><a href="Orchesella_cincta" title="Orchesella cincta">Orchesella cincta</a>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a>

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<td>Kingdom:

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<td><a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>

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<td>Phylum:

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<td><a href="Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a>

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<td>Clade:

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<td><a href="Allotriocarida" title="Allotriocarida">Allotriocarida</a>

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<td>Subphylum:

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<td><a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a>

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<td>Class:

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<td> <a href="John_Lubbock%2C_1st_Baron_Avebury" title="John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury">Lubbock</a>, 1871

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Orders

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<ul><li><a href="Entomobryomorpha" title="Entomobryomorpha">Entomobryomorpha</a></li>

<li><a href="Poduromorpha" title="Poduromorpha">Poduromorpha</a></li>

<li><a href="Symphypleona" title="Symphypleona">Symphypleona</a></li>

<li><a href="Neelipleona" title="Neelipleona">Neelipleona</a> (disputed)</li></ul>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

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<ul><li>Oligentoma</li>

<li>Oligoentoma</li></ul>

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Springtails (class Collembola) form the largest of the three lineages of modern <a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">hexapods</a> that are no longer considered <a href="Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>. Although the three lineages are sometimes grouped together in a class called <a href="Entognatha" title="Entognatha">Entognatha</a> because they have internal <a href="Arthropod_mouthparts" title="Arthropod mouthparts">mouthparts</a>, they do not appear to be any more closely related to one another than they are to insects, which have external mouthparts. There are more than 9000 species.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

Springtails are <a href="Omnivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivorous">omnivorous</a>, free-living organisms that prefer moist conditions. They do not directly engage in the decomposition of organic matter, but contribute to it indirectly through the fragmentation of organic matter<a href="#cite_note-brady-3">[3]</a> and the control of soil microbial communities.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The word Collembola is from Ancient Greek κόλλα kólla 'glue' and ἔμβολος émbolos 'peg'; this name was given due to the existence of the <a href="Collophore" title="Collophore">collophore</a>, which was previously thought to stick to surfaces to stabilize the creature.<a href="#cite_note-lubbock-5">[5]</a>

Early <a href="DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a> studies<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> suggested that Collembola represent a separate <a href="Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">evolutionary line</a> from the other <a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a>, but others disagree;<a href="#cite_note-Gao-9">[9]</a> this seems to be caused by widely divergent patterns of <a href="Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a> among the <a href="Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The adjustments of traditional <a href="Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic rank</a> for springtails reflect the occasional incompatibility of traditional groupings with modern <a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a>: when they were included with the insects, they were ranked as an <a href="Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a>; as part of the Entognatha, they are ranked as a <a href="Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">subclass</a>. If they are considered a <a href="Basal_(evolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal (evolution)">basal</a> lineage of Hexapoda, they are elevated to full <a href="Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> status.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2></div>

Members of the Collembola are normally less than 6 mm (0.24 in) long, have six or fewer <a href="Abdominal" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal">abdominal</a> <a href="Segment_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Segment (biology)">segments</a>, and possess a tubular <a href="Appendage" title="Appendage">appendage</a> (the <a href="Collophore" title="Collophore">collophore</a> or ventral tube) with reversible, sticky vesicles, projecting ventrally from the first abdominal segment.<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> It is believed to be associated with fluid uptake and balance, excretion, and orientation of the organism itself.<a href="#cite_note-:1-12">[12]</a> Most species have an abdominal, tail-like appendage known as a <a href="Furcula_(Collembola)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furcula (Collembola)">furcula</a> (or furca). It is located on the fourth abdominal segment of springtails and is folded beneath the body, held under tension by a small structure called the <a href="Retinaculum" title="Retinaculum">retinaculum</a> (or tenaculum). When released, it snaps against the substrate, flinging the springtail into the air and allowing for rapid evasion and travel. All of this takes place in as little as 18 milliseconds.<a href="#cite_note-Piper-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-12">[12]</a>

Springtails also possess the ability to reduce their body size by as much as 30% through subsequent <a href="Ecdyses" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecdyses">ecdyses</a> (moulting) if temperatures rise high enough. The shrinkage is genetically controlled. Since warmer conditions increase metabolic rates and energy requirements in organisms, the reduction in body size is advantageous to their survival.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

The <a href="Poduromorpha" title="Poduromorpha">Poduromorpha</a> and <a href="Entomobryomorpha" title="Entomobryomorpha">Entomobryomorpha</a> have an elongated body, while the <a href="Symphypleona" title="Symphypleona">Symphypleona</a> and <a href="Neelipleona" title="Neelipleona">Neelipleona</a> have a globular body. Collembola lack a <a href="Invertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrate trachea">tracheal</a> respiration system, which forces them to respire through a <a href="Porous" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a> <a href="Cuticle" title="Cuticle">cuticle</a>, except for the two families <a href="Sminthuridae" title="Sminthuridae">Sminthuridae</a> and Actaletidae, which exhibit a single pair of <a href="Spiracle_(arthropods)" title="Spiracle (arthropods)">spiracles</a> between the head and the <a href="Thorax_(arthropod_anatomy)" title="Thorax (arthropod anatomy)">thorax</a>, leading to a rudimentary, although fully functional, tracheal system.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> The anatomical variance present between different species partially depends on <a href="Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">soil morphology</a> and composition. Surface-dwellers are generally larger, have darker pigments, have longer antennae and functioning furcula. Sub-surface-dwellers are usually unpigmented, have elongated bodies, and reduced furcula. They can be categorized into four main forms according to soil composition and depth: atmobiotic, epedaphic, hemiedaphic, and euedaphic. Atmobiotic species inhabit macrophytes and litter surfaces. They are generally 8-10 millimeters (about ⅓") in length, pigmented, have long limbs, and a full set of <a href="Ocelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocelli">ocelli</a> (photoreceptors). Epedaphic species inhabit upper litter layers and fallen logs. They are slightly smaller and have less pronounced pigments, as well as less developed limbs and ocelli than the atmobiotic species. Hemiedaphic species inhabit the lower litter layers of decomposing organic material. They are 1-2 millimeters (about 1/16") in length, have dispersed pigmentation, shortened limbs, and a reduced number of ocelli. Euedaphic species inhabit upper mineral layers known as the humus horizon. They are smaller than hemiedaphic species; have soft, elongated bodies; lack pigmentation and ocelli; and have reduced or absent furca.<a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-18">[18]</a>

Poduromorphs are characterized by their elongated bodies and conspicuous segmentation – three thoracic segments, six abdominal segments, including a well-developed <a href="Prothorax" title="Prothorax">prothorax</a> with tergal chaetae,<a href="#cite_note-:3-18">[18]</a> while the first thoracic segment in Entomobryomorpha is clearly reduced and bears no chaetae.

The digestive tract of springtails consists of three main components: the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The midgut is surrounded by a network of muscles and lined with a monolayer of columnar or cuboidal cells. Its function is to mix and transport food from the lumen into the hindgut through contraction. Many species of syntrophic bacteria, archaea, and fungi are present in the lumen. These different digestive regions have varying pH to support specific enzymatic activities and microbial populations. The anterior portion of the midgut and hindgut is slightly acidic (with a pH of approximately 6.0) while the posterior midgut portion is slightly alkaline (with a pH of approximately 8.0). Between the midgut and hindgut is an alimentary canal called the pyloric region, which is a muscular sphincter.<a href="#cite_note-:1-12">[12]</a> <a href="Malpighian_tubule_system" title="Malpighian tubule system">Malpighian tubules</a> are absent.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genomics">Genomics</h2></div>

Given their small size, springtails have been neglected in terms of <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> analysis. They are one of the few insect groups that do not have high-quality <a href="Reference_genome" title="Reference genome">reference genomes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Even though some earlier genome sequences were produced, they do not meet modern standards (contig <a href="N50%2C_L50%2C_and_related_statistics" title="N50, L50, and related statistics">N50</a> > 1 MB). One of the first genomes was presented in 2025, the genome of <a href="Orchesella_flavescens" title="Orchesella flavescens">Orchesella flavescens</a>, which is 270 MB and which was assembled into 6 <a href="Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>-level scaffolds.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematics_and_evolution">Systematics and evolution</h2></div>

Traditionally, the springtails were divided into the <a href="Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a> <a href="Arthropleona" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropleona">Arthropleona</a>, <a href="Symphypleona" title="Symphypleona">Symphypleona</a>, and occasionally also <a href="Neelipleona" title="Neelipleona">Neelipleona</a>. The Arthropleona were divided into two <a href="Superfamily_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfamily (zoology)">superfamilies</a>, the <a href="Entomobryoidea" title="Entomobryoidea">Entomobryoidea</a> and the <a href="Poduroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Poduroidea">Poduroidea</a>. However, recent phylogenetic studies show Arthropleona is <a href="Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyletic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-XiongGao2008-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeoCarapelli2019-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-SunDing2020-24">[24]</a> Thus, the Arthropleona are abolished in modern classifications, and their superfamilies are raised in rank accordingly, being now orders <a href="Entomobryomorpha" title="Entomobryomorpha">Entomobryomorpha</a> and the <a href="Poduromorpha" title="Poduromorpha">Poduromorpha</a>. Technically, the Arthropleona are thus a partial <a href="Junior_synonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Junior synonym">junior synonym</a> of the Collembola.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

The term "Neopleona" is essentially synonymous with Symphypleona + Neelipleona.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The Neelipleona was originally seen as a particularly advanced lineage of Symphypleona, based on the shared global body shape, but the global body of the Neelipleona is realized in a completely different way than in Symphypleona. Subsequently, the Neelipleona were considered as being derived from the Entomobryomorpha. Analysis of <a href="18S_rRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="18S rRNA">18S</a> and <a href="28S_rRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="28S rRNA">28S</a> <a href="RRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RRNA">rRNA</a> <a href="DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">sequence</a> data, though, suggests that they form the most ancient lineage of springtails, which would explain their peculiar <a href="Apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphy">apomorphies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-9">[9]</a> This phylogenetic relationship was also confirmed using a phylogeny based on <a href="MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a><a href="#cite_note-LeoCarapelli2019-23">[23]</a> and <a href="Phylogenomics" title="Phylogenomics">whole-genome data</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SunDing2020-24">[24]</a>

The latest whole-genome phylogeny supporting four orders of Collembola:<a href="#cite_note-SunDing2020-24">[24]</a>

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<a href="Neelipleona" title="Neelipleona">Neelipleona</a>

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<a href="Poduromorpha" title="Poduromorpha">Poduromorpha</a>

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<a href="Symphypleona" title="Symphypleona">Symphypleona</a>

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<a href="Entomobryomorpha" title="Entomobryomorpha">Entomobryomorpha</a>

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Springtails are attested to since the <a href="Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">Early Devonian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The fossil from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=400">400</a> million years ago, <a href="Rhyniella_praecursor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhyniella praecursor">Rhyniella praecursor</a>, is the oldest terrestrial arthropod, and was found in the famous <a href="Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</a> of <a href="Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. Given its morphology resembles extant species quite closely, the radiation of the <a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a> can be situated in the <a href="Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=420">420</a> million years ago or more.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Additional research concerning the coprolites (fossilized feces) of ancient springtails allowed researchers to track their lineages back some 412 million years.<a href="#cite_note-:1-12">[12]</a>

Fossil Collembola are rare. Instead, most are found in amber.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Even these are rare and many amber deposits carry few or no collembola. The best deposits are from the early Eocene of Canada and Europe,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Miocene of Central America,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> and the mid-Cretaceous of Burma and Canada.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> They display some unexplained characteristics: first, all but one of the fossils from the Cretaceous belong to extinct genera, whereas none of the specimens from the Eocene or the Miocene are of extinct genera; second, the species from Burma are more similar to the modern fauna of Canada than are the Canadian Cretaceous specimens.

There are about 3,600 different species.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eating_behavior">Eating behavior</h3></div>

Specific feeding strategies and mechanisms are employed to match specific niches.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Herbivorous and detritivorous species fragment biological material present in soil and leaf litter, supporting decomposition and increasing the availability of nutrients for various species of microbes and fungi.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Carnivorous species maintain populations of small invertebrates such as nematodes, rotifers, and other collembolan species.<a href="#cite_note-:1-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-16">[16]</a> Springtails commonly consume fungal hyphae and spores, but also have been found to consume plant material and pollen, animal remains, colloidal materials, minerals and bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Some springtail species like Anurophorus laricis can form mutually beneficial relationships with <a href="Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a>, using them for shelter while feeding on surrounding free-living algae, which helps reduce competition between the algae and lichens for space and nutrients.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predators">Predators</h3></div>

Springtails are consumed by <a href="Mesostigmata" title="Mesostigmata">mesostigmatan</a> mites in various families, including <a href="Ascidae" title="Ascidae">Ascidae</a>, <a href="Laelapidae" title="Laelapidae">Laelapidae</a>, <a href="Parasitidae" title="Parasitidae">Parasitidae</a>, <a href="Rhodacaridae" title="Rhodacaridae">Rhodacaridae</a> and <a href="Veigaiidae" title="Veigaiidae">Veigaiidae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

Cave-dwelling springtails are a food source for <a href="Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a> and <a href="Opiliones" title="Opiliones">harvestmen</a> in the same environment, such as the endangered harvestman <a href="Texella_reyesi" title="Texella reyesi">Texella reyesi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

Predators also include various <a href="Geophilomorpha" title="Geophilomorpha">soil centipedes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

To protect themselves, some species have evolved chemical defenses.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution">Distribution</h3></div>

Springtails are <a href="Cryptozoa" title="Cryptozoa">cryptozoa</a> frequently found in <a href="Leaf_litter" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf litter">leaf litter</a> and other decaying material,<a href="#cite_note-Hopkin-42">[42]</a> where they are primarily <a href="Detritivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Detritivores">detritivores</a> and <a href="Microbivore" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbivore">microbivores</a>, and one of the main biological agents responsible for the control and the dissemination of soil <a href="Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In a mature deciduous woodland in temperate climate, leaf litter and vegetation typically support 30 to 40 species of springtails, and in the tropics the number may be over 100.<a href="#cite_note-Hopkin1997-44">[44]</a>

In sheer numbers, they are reputed to be one of the most abundant of all macroscopic animals, with estimates of 100,000 individuals per square meter of ground,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> essentially everywhere on Earth where soil and related habitats (<a href="Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> cushions, fallen <a href="Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="Grass" title="Grass">grass</a> tufts, <a href="Ant" title="Ant">ant</a> and <a href="Termite" title="Termite">termite</a> nests) occur.<a href="#cite_note-Ponge_1993-46">[46]</a> Only <a href="Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>, <a href="Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, and <a href="Mite" title="Mite">mites</a> are likely to have global populations of similar magnitude, and each of those groups except mites is more inclusive. Though taxonomic rank cannot be used for absolute comparisons, it is notable that nematodes are a <a href="Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> and crustaceans a <a href="Subphylum" title="Subphylum">subphylum</a>. Most springtails are small and difficult to see by casual observation, but some springtails, like <a href="Hypogastrura_nivicola" title="Hypogastrura nivicola">snow fleas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> are readily observed on warm winter days when it is active and its dark color contrasts sharply with a background of snow.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>

In addition, a few species routinely climb trees and form a dominant component of canopy fauna, where they may be collected by beating or insecticide fogging.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> These tend to be the larger (>2 mm) species, mainly in the genera <a href="Entomobrya" title="Entomobrya">Entomobrya</a> and <a href="Orchesella" title="Orchesella">Orchesella</a>, though the densities on a per square meter basis are typically 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than soil populations of the same species. In temperate regions, a few species (e.g. <a href="Anurophorus" title="Anurophorus">Anurophorus</a> spp., Entomobrya albocincta, Xenylla xavieri, Hypogastrura arborea) are almost exclusively arboreal.<a href="#cite_note-Ponge_1993-46">[46]</a> In tropical regions a single square meter of canopy habitat can support many species of Collembola.<a href="#cite_note-Piper-13">[13]</a>

The main <a href="Ecological_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological factor">ecological factor</a> driving the local distribution of species is the vertical stratification of the environment: in <a href="Woodland" title="Woodland">woodland</a> a continuous change in species assemblages can be observed from tree <a href="Canopy_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canopy (biology)">canopies</a> to ground <a href="Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> then to <a href="Plant_litter" title="Plant litter">plant litter</a> down to deeper <a href="Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">soil horizons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ponge_1993-46">[46]</a> This is a complex factor embracing both <a href="Nutritional" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutritional">nutritional</a> and <a href="Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a> requirements, together with behavioural trends,<a href="#cite_note-Didden_1987-51">[51]</a> dispersal limitation<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> and probable species <a href="Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">interactions</a>. Some species have been shown to exhibit negative<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> or positive<a href="#cite_note-Didden_1987-51">[51]</a> <a href="Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">gravitropism</a>, which adds a <a href="Behavioural" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural">behavioural</a> dimension to this still poorly understood vertical segregation. Experiments with peat samples turned upside down showed two types of responses to disturbance of this vertical gradient, called "stayers" and "movers".<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>

As a group, springtails are highly sensitive to <a href="Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a>, because of their tegumentary <a href="Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> although some species with thin, permeable cuticles have been shown to resist severe drought by regulating the osmotic pressure of their body fluid.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The gregarious behaviour of Collembola, mostly driven by the attractive power of <a href="Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a> excreted by adults,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> gives more chance to every juvenile or adult individual to find suitable, better protected places, where desiccation could be avoided and <a href="Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a> and <a href="Survival_rate" title="Survival rate">survival</a> rates (thereby <a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a>) could be kept at an optimum.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Sensitivity to drought varies from species to species<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and increases during <a href="Ecdysis" title="Ecdysis">ecdysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Given that springtails <a href="Moulting" title="Moulting">moult</a> repeatedly during their entire life (an <a href="Ancestral" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral">ancestral</a> character in <a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a>) they spend much time in concealed micro-sites where they can find protection against <a href="Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> and <a href="Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> during ecdysis, an advantage reinforced by synchronized moulting.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The high humidity environment of many caves also favours springtails and there are numerous cave adapted species,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> including one, <a href="Plutomurus_ortobalaganensis" title="Plutomurus ortobalaganensis">Plutomurus ortobalaganensis</a> living 1,980 metres (6,500 ft) down the <a href="Krubera_Cave" title="Krubera Cave">Krubera Cave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>

The horizontal distribution of springtail species is affected by environmental factors which act at the landscape scale, such as soil <a href="Acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidity">acidity</a>, <a href="Moisture" title="Moisture">moisture</a> and <a href="Light" title="Light">light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ponge_1993-46">[46]</a> Requirements for <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> can be reconstructed experimentally.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Altitudinal changes in species distribution can be at least partly explained by increased acidity at higher elevation.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Moisture requirements, among other ecological and behavioural factors, explain why some species cannot live aboveground,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> or retreat in the soil during dry seasons,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> but also why some <a href="Epigeal" title="Epigeal">epigeal</a> springtails are always found in the vicinity of ponds and lakes, such as the hygrophilous <a href="Isotomurus_palustris" title="Isotomurus palustris">Isotomurus palustris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptive</a> features, such as the presence of a fan-like wettable mucro, allow some species to move at the surface of water in freshwater and marine environments.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="Podura_aquatica" title="Podura aquatica">Podura aquatica</a>, a unique representative of the family <a href="Poduridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Poduridae">Poduridae</a> (and one of the first springtails to have been described by <a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>), spends its entire life at the surface of water, its wettable eggs dropping in water until the non-wettable first instar hatches then surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> A few genera are capable of being submerged, and after molting young springtails lose their water repellent properties and are able to survive submerged under water.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>

In a variegated landscape, made of a patchwork of closed (<a href="Woodland" title="Woodland">woodland</a>) and open (<a href="Meadow" title="Meadow">meadows</a>, <a href="Cereal_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereal crop">cereal crops</a>) environments, most <a href="Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>-dwelling species are not specialized and can be found everywhere, but most <a href="Epigeal" title="Epigeal">epigeal</a> and <a href="Litter" title="Litter">litter</a>-dwelling species are attracted to a particular environment, either forested or not.<a href="#cite_note-Ponge_1993-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> As a consequence of <a href="Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal</a> limitation, <a href="Landuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Landuse">landuse</a> change, when too rapid, may cause the local disappearance of slow-moving, <a href="Specialist_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialist species">specialist species</a>,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> a phenomenon the measure of which has been called colonisation credit.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_humans">Relationship with humans</h3></div>

Springtails are well known as <a href="Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">pests</a> of some agricultural crops. <a href="Sminthurus_viridis" title="Sminthurus viridis">Sminthurus viridis</a>, the lucerne flea, has been shown to cause severe damage to agricultural crops,<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> and is considered as a pest in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Onychiuridae are also known to feed on tubers and to damage them to some extent.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> However, by their capacity to carry spores of <a href="Mycorrhizal_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizal fungi">mycorrhizal fungi</a> and <a href="Mycorrhiza_helper_bacteria" title="Mycorrhiza helper bacteria">mycorrhiza helper bacteria</a> on their tegument, soil springtails play a positive role in the establishment of plant-fungal <a href="Symbioses" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbioses">symbioses</a> and thus are beneficial to agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> They also contribute to controlling plant <a href="Fungal_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungal diseases">fungal diseases</a> through their active consumption of <a href="Mycelia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycelia">mycelia</a> and <a href="Spores" class="mw-redirect" title="Spores">spores</a> of <a href="Damping-off" class="mw-redirect" title="Damping-off">damping-off</a> and <a href="Pathogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenic">pathogenic</a> fungi.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> It has been suggested that they could be reared to be used for the control of <a href="Pathogenic_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenic fungi">pathogenic fungi</a> in greenhouses and other indoor cultures.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>

Springtails sometimes find their way inside living spaces. However, most pesticides are not effective against them and moisture-removal strategies are the best line of defense to combat infestations.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a>

Various sources and publications have suggested that some springtails may <a href="Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasitize</a> humans, but this is entirely inconsistent with their biology, and no such phenomenon has ever been scientifically confirmed, though it has been documented that the scales or hairs from springtails can cause irritation when rubbed onto the skin.<a href="#cite_note-J&C2007-87">[87]</a> They may sometimes be abundant indoors in damp places such as bathrooms and basements, and incidentally found on one's person. More often, claims of persistent human skin infection by springtails may indicate a neurological problem, such as <a href="Delusional_parasitosis" title="Delusional parasitosis">delusional parasitosis</a>, a psychological rather than entomological problem. Researchers themselves may be subject to psychological phenomena. For example, a publication in 2004 claiming that springtails had been found in skin samples was later determined to be a case of <a href="Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">pareidolia</a>; that is, no springtail specimens were actually recovered, but the researchers had digitally enhanced photos of sample debris to create images resembling small arthropod heads, which then were claimed to be springtail remnants.<a href="#cite_note-J&C2007-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> However, Steve Hopkin reports one instance of an entomologist <a href="Pooter" class="mw-redirect" title="Pooter">aspirating</a> an <a href="Isotoma_(springtail)" title="Isotoma (springtail)">Isotoma</a> species and in the process accidentally inhaling some of their eggs, which hatched in his nasal cavity and made him quite ill until they were flushed out.<a href="#cite_note-Hopkin1997-44">[44]</a>

In 1952, <a href="China" title="China">China</a> accused the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> military of spreading bacteria-laden insects and other objects during the <a href="Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> by dropping them from <a href="P-51" class="mw-redirect" title="P-51">P-51</a> fighters above rebel villages over <a href="North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>. In all, the U.S. was accused of dropping ants, beetles, crickets, fleas, flies, grasshoppers, lice, springtails, and stoneflies as part of a <a href="Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a> effort. The alleged associated diseases included <a href="Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, <a href="Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>, fowl septicemia, <a href="Paratyphoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratyphoid">paratyphoid</a>, <a href="Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>, <a href="Scrub_typhus" title="Scrub typhus">scrub typhus</a>, <a href="Small_pox" class="mw-redirect" title="Small pox">small pox</a>, and <a href="Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>. China created an international scientific commission for investigating possible bacterial warfare, eventually ruling that the United States probably did engage in limited biological warfare in Korea. The <a href="US_government" class="mw-redirect" title="US government">US government</a> denied all the allegations, and instead proposed that the United Nations send a formal inquiry committee to China and Korea, but China and Korea refused to cooperate. U.S. and Canadian entomologists further claimed that the accusations were ridiculous and argued that anomalous appearances of insects could be explained through natural phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Springtail species cited in <a href="Allegations_of_biological_warfare_in_the_Korean_War" title="Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War">allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War</a> were Isotoma (Desoria) negishina (a local species) and the "white rat springtail" <a href="Folsomia_candida" title="Folsomia candida">Folsomia candida</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>

Captive springtails are often kept in a <a href="Terrarium" title="Terrarium">terrarium</a> as part of a <a href="Clean-up_crew" title="Clean-up crew">clean-up crew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecotoxicology_laboratory_animals">Ecotoxicology laboratory animals</h3></div>

Springtails are currently used in laboratory tests for the early detection of <a href="Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">soil pollution</a>. <a href="Acute_toxicity" title="Acute toxicity">Acute</a> and <a href="Chronic_toxicity" title="Chronic toxicity">chronic toxicity</a> tests have been performed by researchers, mostly using the <a href="Parthenogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthenogenetic">parthenogenetic</a> <a href="Isotomid" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotomid">isotomid</a> Folsomia candida.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> These tests have been standardized.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Details on a <a href="Ringtest" title="Ringtest">ringtest</a>, on the biology and <a href="Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">ecotoxicology</a> of Folsomia candida and comparison with the sexual nearby species Folsomia fimetaria (sometimes preferred to Folsomia candida) are given in a document written by Paul Henning Krogh.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Care should be taken that different strains of the same species may be conducive to different results. Avoidance tests have been also performed.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> They have been standardized, too.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Avoidance tests are complementary to toxicity tests, but they also offer several advantages: they are more rapid (thus cheaper), more sensitive and they are environmentally more reliable, because in the real world Collembola move actively far from pollution spots.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> It may be hypothesized that the soil could become locally depauperated in animals (and thus improper to normal use) while below thresholds of toxicity. Contrary to <a href="Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>, and like many insects and molluscs, Collembola are very sensitive to <a href="Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a> and thus are threatened in no-tillage agriculture, which makes a more intense use of herbicides than conventional agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>

The springtail <a href="Folsomia_candida" title="Folsomia candida">Folsomia candida</a> is also becoming a <a href="Genomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic">genomic</a> model organism for soil toxicology.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> With <a href="Microarray" title="Microarray">microarray</a> technology the expression of thousands of genes can be measured in parallel. The gene expression profiles of Folsomia candida exposed to environmental toxicants allow fast and sensitive detection of pollution, and additionally clarifies molecular mechanisms causing toxicology.

Collembola have been found to be useful as bio-indicators of soil quality. Laboratory studies have been conducted that validated that the jumping ability of springtails can be used to evaluate the soil quality of Cu- and Ni-polluted sites.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_warming_impact">Climate warming impact</h2></div>

In polar regions that are expected to experience among the most rapid impact from climate warming, springtails have shown contrasting responses to warming in experimental warming studies.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> There are negative,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sjursen,_H._2005-107">[107]</a> positive<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> and neutral responses reported.<a href="#cite_note-Sjursen,_H._2005-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alatalo,_JM_2015-110">[110]</a> Neutral responses to experimental warming have also been reported in studies of non-polar regions.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The importance of soil moisture has been demonstrated in experiments using infrared heating in an alpine meadow, which had a negative effect on mesofauna biomass and diversity in drier parts and a positive effect in moist sub-areas.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Furthermore, a study with 20 years of experimental warming in three contrasting plant communities found that small scale heterogeneity may buffer springtails to potential climate warming.<a href="#cite_note-Alatalo,_JM_2015-110">[110]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2></div>

<a href="Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> occurs through the clustered or scattered deposition of spermatophores by <a href="Male" title="Male">male</a> adults. Stimulation of <a href="Spermatophore" title="Spermatophore">spermatophore</a> deposition by female <a href="Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a> has been demonstrated in <a href="Sinella_curviseta" title="Sinella curviseta">Sinella curviseta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="Courtship_display" title="Courtship display">Mating behavior</a> can be observed in <a href="Symphypleona" title="Symphypleona">Symphypleona</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Among Symphypleona, males of some <a href="Sminthuridae" title="Sminthuridae">Sminthuridae</a> use a clasping organ located on their <a href="Antenna_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna (biology)">antenna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hopkin-42">[42]</a> Many springtails, mostly those living in deeper soil horizons, are parthenogenetic, which favors <a href="Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a> to the detriment of <a href="Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> and thereby to <a href="Population" title="Population">population</a> tolerance of <a href="Environmental_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental hazards">environmental hazards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">Parthenogenesis</a> (also called <a href="Thelytoky" title="Thelytoky">thelytoky</a>) is under the control of symbiotic <a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> of the genus <a href="Wolbachia" title="Wolbachia">Wolbachia</a>, which live, reproduce and are carried in female reproductive organs and eggs of Collembola.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Feminizing <a href="Wolbachia" title="Wolbachia">Wolbachia</a> species are widespread in <a href="Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> and <a href="Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> where they co-evolved with most of their <a href="Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">lineages</a>.

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<ul><li><a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Collembola" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Collembola">Collembola</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Springtail">"Springtail" </a>. <a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collembola.org/">Checklist of the Collembola of the World</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urweb.roehampton.ac.uk/collembola/taxonomy/">Summary information about the distribution and ecology of Collembola (springtails) in the UK and Ireland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422055046/http://urweb.roehampton.ac.uk/collembola/taxonomy/">Archived</a> 2019-04-22 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earthlife.net/insects/collembo.html">General information on Collembola</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/library/compendium/collembola.html">General information on Collembola</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-rx/files/35feat_springtails_most_abundent-3056.pdf">A small lecture from Steve Hopkin</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.janvanduinen.nl/collembolaengels.html">General information on Collembola, with many macrophotographs from Dutch springtails</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collembola.co.za/">Collembola species currently recorded from South Africa</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Extant_Arthropoda_classes_by_subphylum240" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a> classes by subphylum</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Kingdom <a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li>

<li>Subkingdom <a href="Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a></li>

<li>Clade <a href="Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></li>

<li>Clade <a href="Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomia</a></li>

<li>Superphylum <a href="Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chelicerata" title="Chelicerata">Chelicerata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sea_spider" title="Sea spider">Pycnogonida (sea spiders)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="Euchelicerata" class="mw-redirect" title="Euchelicerata">Euchelicerata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Xiphosura" title="Xiphosura">Xiphosura (horseshoe crabs)</a></li>

<li><a href="Arachnid" title="Arachnid">Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mandibulata" title="Mandibulata">Mandibulata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Myriapoda" title="Myriapoda">Myriapoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Centipede" title="Centipede">Chilopoda (centipedes)</a></li>

<li><a href="Symphyla" title="Symphyla">Symphyla</a></li>

<li><a href="Pauropoda" title="Pauropoda">Pauropoda</a></li>

<li><a href="Millipede" title="Millipede">Diplopoda (millipedes)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pancrustacea" title="Pancrustacea">Pancrustacea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustacea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ostracod" title="Ostracod">Ostracoda (seed shrimps)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mystacocarida" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystacocarida">Mystacocarida</a></li>

<li><a href="Pentastomida" title="Pentastomida">Pentastomida (tongue worms)</a></li>

<li><a href="Branchiura" class="mw-redirect" title="Branchiura">Branchiura (fish lice)</a></li>

<li><a href="Malacostraca" title="Malacostraca">Malacostraca (woodlice, shrimps, crayfish, lobsters, crabs)</a></li>

<li><a href="Thecostraca" title="Thecostraca">Thecostraca (barnacles and relatives)</a></li>

<li><a href="Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepoda</a></li>

<li><a href="Tantulocarida" title="Tantulocarida">Tantulocarida</a></li>

<li><a href="Cephalocarida" title="Cephalocarida">Cephalocarida (horseshoe shrimps)</a></li>

<li><a href="Branchiopoda" title="Branchiopoda">Branchiopoda (fairy, tadpole, clam shrimps, water fleas)</a></li>

<li><a href="Remipedia" title="Remipedia">Remipedia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Protura" title="Protura">Protura (coneheads)</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplura" title="Diplura">Diplura (two-pronged bristletails)</a></li>

<li><a href="Insect" title="Insect">Insecta (insects)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>italic are paraphyletic groups</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers3481" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers3481" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Taxon identifiers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Collembola</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190701" class="extiw external" title="wikidata:Q190701">Q190701</a></li>

<li><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Collembola" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Collembola">Collembola</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Collembola/">Collembola</a></li>

<li><a href="Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Collembola">Collembola</a></li>

<li>BioLib: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id19589">19589</a></li>

<li><a href="BugGuide" title="BugGuide">BugGuide</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bugguide.net/node/view/258362">258362</a></li>

<li><a href="EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1COLLO">1COLLO</a></li>

<li><a href="Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=urn:lsid:faunaeur.org:taxname:11187">11187</a></li>

<li><a href="INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/49470">49470</a></li>

<li><a href="Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11233">11233</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=133900">133900</a></li>

<li><a href="Plazi" title="Plazi">Plazi</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treatment.plazi.org/id/3ED85DF8-A30F-37E4-5237-50426383C4A8">3ED85DF8-A30F-37E4-5237-50426383C4A8</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=118086">118086</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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